《环境污染和监测》魔法香蕉nanb

4、Emerging Contaminants

　　1.Describe what emerging contaminants are.
　　Emerging contaminants are synthetic or naturally occurring chemicals (or any microorganisms) that are not commonly monitored in the environment but have the potential to enter the environment and cause known or suspected adverse ecological and/or human health effects.
　　Emerging contaminants (ECs), also known as contaminants of emerging concerns, represent a relatively newly discovered group of unregulated contaminants.
　　新出现的污染物是合成的或天然存在的化学物质（或任何微生物），通常在环境中不受监测，但有可能进入环境并造成已知或疑似的不利生态和/或人类健康影响。
　　新兴污染物（ECs），也称为新兴问题污染物，是一组相对较新发现的不受管制的污染物。
　　2.List four classes of emerging organic contaminants and briefly explain their defining characteristics (e.g. chemical structure and major source(s)).
　　①Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs): 药品及个人护理用品
　　These are compounds that are used in medications, personal care products, and veterinary drugs. They include common substances such as caffeine, antibiotics, hormones, and fragrances. PPCPs enter the environment through excretion from humans and animals, improper disposal of unused medication or personal care products, and improper treatment of wastewater.这些化合物用于药物、个人护理产品和兽药。它们包括常见的物质，如咖啡因、抗生素、激素和香料。PPCPs通过人类和动物的排泄、未使用的药物或个人护理产品的不当处置以及废水的不当处理进入环境。
　　②Perfluorinated Compounds (PFCs)全氟化合物
　　Perfluorinated Compounds (PFCs) are persistent, mobile, and toxic contaminants used in various industrial and consumer products such as non-stick cookware, fire-fighting foams, and water-resistant coatings. They have a strong carbon-fluorine bond which makes them highly resistant to degradation in the environment. PFCs can persist for a long time and accumulate in living organisms, leading to adverse health effects such as developmental issues, immune system dysfunction, hormonal imbalances, and cancer. PFCs have been found to be toxic to aquatic life and can cause harm to entire ecosystems. They have been detected in wastewater treatment plants, rivers, lakes, and groundwater across the globe, making it difficult to contain the spread of contamination. Ongoing efforts are needed to minimize their release and mitigate their impact on human and environmental health.全氟化合物（PFCs）是持久性、流动性和毒性污染物，用于各种工业和消费品，如不粘锅、消防泡沫和防水涂料。它们具有很强的碳氟键，这使得它们在环境中具有很强的抗降解性。PFCs可以持续很长时间，并在活生物体中积累，导致不利的健康影响，如发育问题、免疫系统功能障碍、激素失衡和癌症。全氟化碳被发现对水生生物有毒，并可能对整个生态系统造成损害。它们已经在全球的废水处理厂、河流、湖泊和地下水中被检测到，这使得控制污染的扩散变得困难。需要不断努力，尽量减少它们的释放，减轻它们对人类和环境健康的影响。
　　③Brominated Flame Retardants (BFRs) 溴阻燃剂
　　are used to reduce the flammability of various products such as electronics, furniture, and textiles. They are persistent pollutants that can be released into the environment through manufacturing, use, and disposal of products containing BFRs.
　　One defining characteristic of BFRs is their ability to accumulate in the environment and living organisms, including humans, leading to potential long-term health effects. Exposure to BFRs has been associated with developmental issues, hormonal imbalances, reproductive problems, and cancer. Studies have also shown that BFRs can cause harm to wildlife, particularly aquatic organisms.
　　Furthermore, BFRs can interact with other environmental pollutants and create new, potentially more harmful compounds. There are also concerns about the environmental impact of decommissioned electronic waste containing BFRs.用于降低各种产品的易燃性，如电子产品、家具和纺织品。它们是持久性污染物，可通过制造、使用和处置含有BFR的产品而释放到环境中。
　　BFRs的一个决定性特征是它们能够在环境和包括人类在内的生物体中积累，导致潜在的长期健康影响。接触BFRs与发育问题、激素失衡、生殖问题和癌症有关。研究还表明，BFRs会对野生动物，尤其是水生生物造成伤害。
　　此外，BFR可以与其他环境污染物相互作用，产生新的、潜在的更有害的化合物。人们还担心含有BFR的退役电子废物对环境的影响。
　　④Disinfection by-products (DBPs) 消毒副产物
　　are formed when chlorine or other disinfectants used in the treatment of drinking water react with organic matter found naturally in the water, such as decaying leaves and algae.
　　One defining characteristic of DBPs is their potential to be carcinogenic and genotoxic. Long-term exposure to elevated levels of DBPs has been associated with an increased risk of bladder and colorectal cancer, as well as adverse reproductive outcomes.
　　DBPs can also cause irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, as well as skin irritation and respiratory problems. In addition, they can affect the taste and odor of drinking water
　　当氯或其他用于处理饮用水的消毒剂与水中天然存在的有机物（如腐烂的树叶和藻类）反应时形成。
　　DBPs的一个决定性特征是其潜在的致癌性和遗传毒性。长期暴露于高水平的DBPs与膀胱癌和结肠直肠癌的风险增加以及不良生殖结果有关。
　　DBPs还会导致眼睛、鼻子和喉咙发炎，以及皮肤发炎和呼吸系统问题。此外，它们还会影响饮用水的味道和气味
　　3.Describe the known environmental or human health effects of one class of emerging organic contaminants in detail.
　　PFCs:
　　? PFCs widely detected in human blood, urine and breast milk
　　? Unusual mechanism of bioaccumulation, as PFCs bind to serum proteins and accumulate in blood, rather than in fatty tissue.
　　? Some association between PFOA exposure from drinking water and thyroid disease (Winquist and Steenland, 2014)
　　? Other human health concerns include ?cancers ? reproductive and developmental effects
　　3.详细描述一类新出现的有机污染物对环境或人类健康的已知影响。
　　PFCs：
　　?在人的血液、尿液和母乳中广泛检测到全氟化碳
　　·不寻常的生物累积机制，因为PFCs与血清蛋白结合并在血液中而不是在脂肪组织中累积。
　　?从饮用水中接触全氟辛酸与甲状腺疾病之间存在某种关联（Winquist和Steenland，2014）
　　?其他人类健康问题包括：癌症、生殖及发育影响

　　4.Which class of emerging organiccontaminants are considered as conservative markers of wastewater pollution?
　　Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) are considered conservative markers of wastewater pollution. PPCPs are not typically removed during wastewater treatment processes and can persist in the environment for a long time, making them useful indicators of wastewater contamination. PPCPs enter the sewer system through human and animal excretion or improper disposal of unused medication or personal care products and can be detected in surface water, groundwater, and even drinking water. Therefore, monitoring PPCPs can help identify sources of wastewater pollution and evaluate the effectiveness of wastewater treatment processes.药品和个人护理产品（PPCPs）被认为是废水污染的保守标志。PPCPs通常不会在废水处理过程中被去除，并且可以在环境中持续很长时间，使它们成为废水污染的有用指标。PPCPs通过人类和动物的排泄物或未使用的药物或个人护理产品的不当处置进入下水道系统，可以在地表水、地下水甚至饮用水中检测到。因此，监测PPCPs有助于确定废水污染源和评估废水处理过程的有效性。
　　5.Which property of perfluorinated compounds contributes to their stability in the environment? 全氟化合物的哪些特性有助于其在环境中的稳定性？
　　The strong carbon-fluorine (C-F) bond is the property of perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) that contributes to their stability in the environment. The C-F bond is one of the strongest bonds, making it difficult for PFCs to break down and degrade in the environment. This means that even after they are released into the environment through various sources, such as industrial waste or wastewater discharge, PFCs can persist for a long time and accumulate in living organisms, including humans. Due to their stability, PFCs are considered persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and have been identified as emerging contaminants of concern.
　　强碳氟（C-F）键是全氟化合物（PFCs）的特性，有助于它们在环境中的稳定性。C-F键是最强的键之一，使得PFCs很难在环境中分解和降解。这意味着，即使它们通过各种来源，如工业废物或废水排放，释放到环境中，全氟化碳也可能长期存在，并在包括人类在内的活生物体中积累。由于其稳定性，全氟化学品被视为持久性有机污染物，并已被确定为令人担忧的新污染物。