1、香皂 from ...
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Soapmaking
Handmade soaps sold at a shop in Hyères, France。The most popular soapmaking process today is the cold process method, where fats such as olive oil react with lye, while some soapers use the historical hot process.
现在广受欢迎的手工皂大多是用橄榄油为原料的冷制皂，当然也有用热制法制的。
Handmade soap differs from industrial soap in that, usually, an excess of fat is sometimes used to consume the alkali (superfatting), and in that the glycerin is not removed leaving a naturally moisturising soap and not pure detergent. Superfatted soap, soap which contains excess fat, is more skin-friendly than industrial soap, though if too much fat is added it can leave users with a "greasy" feel to their skin. Often, emollients such as jojoba oil or shea butter are added 'at trace' (the point at which the saponification process is sufficiently advanced that the soap has begun to thicken), after most of the oils have saponified, so that they remain unreacted in the finished soap. Superfatting can also be accomplished through a process called superfat discount, where, instead of putting in extra fats, the soap maker puts in less lye.
手工皂和工业皂的不同在于成产过程中油脂的过量添加以保证完全皂化和多余油脂的滞留。过量的油脂虽然会让使用者稍有油腻的感觉但因为其使用的天然油脂，过脂皂对皮肤更好并更能有效地滋润皮肤。同时，为了更好的效果，可以在皂化反应的最后加入荷荷芭油，乳木果油等天然滋润类精油。在香皂的冷却硬化过程中，精油均相地分布于香皂中。当然，除了加入过多的油脂外，还可以用加入更少的碱液的方法。
[edit] Lye
Reacting fat with NaOH will produce a stable soap that will usually become firmer as it cures.
Reacting fat with potassium hydroxide will produce a soap that is either soft or liquid. Historically, the alkali used was potassium hydroxide made from the ashes of bracken or from wood ashes.
用氢氧化钠做原材料做出的香皂会较硬，而使用氢氧化钾则较软或是液体皂。传统上使用草木灰中的氢氧化钾。（欧洲蕨和木灰）
[edit] Fat
Traditional Marseille soap
(Azul e Branco Soap) - A bar of blue-white offenbach soapSoap is derived from either vegetable or animal fats. Sodium tallowate, a common ingredient in many soaps, is derived from rendered beef fat. Soap can also be made of vegetable oils, such as palm oil, and the product is typically softer. If soap is made from pure olive oil it may be called Castile soap or Marseille soap. Castile is also sometimes applied to soaps with a mix of oils, but a high percentage of olive oil.
传统的马赛皂分两种。一种是用动物油脂，如牛脂酸钠和牛油。另一种是用植物油脂，如使用棕榈油，这是很有特色的一种香皂。如果是用纯橄榄油制作成的叫橄榄香皂或马赛皂。有时也用混油做但橄榄油必须占绝大多数。
An array of oils and butters are used in the process such as olive, coconut, palm, cocoa butter, hemp oil and shea butter to provide different qualities. For example, olive oil provides mildness in soap; coconut oil provides lots of lather; while coconut and palm oils provide hardness. Sometimes castor oil can also be used as an ebullient. Most common, though, is a combination of coconut, palm, and olive oils.
使用橄榄油，椰子油，棕榈油，可可油，大麻籽油，乳木果油等做的香皂有各自的特色。如香皂中的橄榄油是香皂温和，椰子油使香皂易起泡，椰子油和棕榈油使香皂变硬。有时橄榄香皂也能被用作ebullient（没找到适合的意思）。使用最普遍的是用椰子油，棕榈油和橄榄油的混合物。
[edit] Process
In both cold-process and hot-process soapmaking, heat may be required for saponification.
造化过程中加热时必须的。
Cold-process soapmaking takes place at a sufficient temperature to ensure the liquification of the fat being used. The lye and fat may be kept warm after mixing to ensure that the soap is completely saponified.
冷制皂：温度保证在所使用的油脂能保持液态并在完全皂化前保持这个温度使其完全混合充分反应。
Unlike cold-processed soap, hot-processed soap can be used right away because lye and fat saponify more quickly at the higher temperatures used in hot-process soapmaking.
热制皂：高温，反应很快，立刻能用
Hot-process soapmaking was used when the purity of lye was unreliable, and this process can use natural lye solutions, such as potash. The main benefit of hot processing is that the exact concentration of the lye solution does not need to be known to perform the process with adequate success.
当碱液的浓度不明或使用天然碱液如碳酸钾用热制法。
Cold-process soapmaking requires exact measurements of lye and fat amounts and computing their ratio, using saponification charts to ensure that the finished product is mild and skin-friendly. Saponification charts can also be used in hot-process soapmaking, but are not as necessary as in cold-process soapmaking.
冷制法要求确定碱液oh-浓度，油量和两者比例。使用皂化表来确保过脂。
Hot process
In the hot-process method, lye and fat are boiled together at 80–100 °C until saponification occurs, which the soapmaker can determine by taste (the bright, distinctive taste of lye disappears once all the lye is saponified) or by eye (the experienced eye can tell when gel stage and full saponification have occurred).
热制法：碱液和油脂在80-100摄氏度（隔水加热？）煮沸直至皂化开始（味道变&开始成胶）
After saponification has occurred, the soap is sometimes precipitated from the solution by adding salt, and the excess liquid drained off.
皂化开始后，加盐使皂沉淀，剩下的溶液也倒掉（主要是甘油和水，基本无污染）
The hot, soft soap is then spooned into a mold.
热软的皂舀到模子里
Cold process
A cold-process soapmaker first looks up the saponification value of the fats being used on a saponification chart, which is then used to calculate the appropriate amount of lye. Excess unreacted lye in the soap will result in a very high pH and can burn or irritate skin. Not enough lye, and the soap is greasy. Most soap makers formulate their recipes with a 4-10% discount of lye so that all of the lye is reacted and that excess fat is left for skin conditioning benefits.
冷制法：先查表，确定使用分量，过多的没有反应的碱液会使溶液的PH值很高会刺激皮肤。不足的碱液会使香皂非常油腻。一般用比完全反应标准算出来的分量少百分之四到十的碱液，这样多余的油脂会确保滋润皮肤的同时不会过于油腻。
The lye is dissolved in water. Then oils are heated, or melted if they are solid at room temperature. Once both substances have cooled to approximately 100-110°F (37-43°C), and are no more than 10°F (~5.5°C) apart, they may be combined. This lye-fat mixture is stirred until "trace" (modern-day □□ soapmakers often use a stick blender to speed this process). There are varying levels of trace. Depending on how additives will affect trace, they may be added at light trace, medium trace or heavy trace. After much stirring, the mixture turns to the consistency of a thin pudding. "Trace" corresponds roughly to viscosity.
碱溶于水中。加热油，如果在室温下是固态油脂加热使其融化。两原料冷却到37-43摄氏度并两者间的温差不大于5.5摄氏度时，将两者混合。搅拌混合物至手上感觉有物生成（粘度改变）。在不同层生成物不同，在生成物的粘度不同时根据自己需要加入添加剂（如香料，精油，香精，干花，中药粉等）。继续搅拌至成均相成胶。粘度持续增加
Essential oils, fragrance oils, botanicals, herbs, oatmeal or other additives are added at light trace, just as the mixture starts to thicken.
The batch is then poured into molds, kept warm with towels, or blankets, and left to continue saponification for 18 to 48 hours. Milk soaps are the exception. They do not require insulation. Insulation may cause the milk to burn. During this time, it is normal for the soap to go through a "gel phase" where the opaque soap will turn somewhat transparent for several hours, before once again turning opaque. The soap will continue to give off heat for many hours after trace.
将胶体倒进模子，用毛巾毛毯等保证温度，持续皂化18-48小时。牛奶皂除外。牛奶皂不需要隔离。在此过程中香皂从不透明的胶体状慢慢变得透明并持续数个小时然后再变不透明。在成皂后的一段时间香皂将持续放热。
After the insulation period the soap is firm enough to be removed from the mold and cut into bars. At this time, it is safe to use the soap since saponification is complete. However, cold-process soaps are typically cured and hardened on a drying rack for 2-6 weeks (depending on initial water content) before use. If using caustic soda it is recommended that the soap is left to cure for at least four weeks.
香皂稳固到能移出模子后将其切成条状。现在就可以用了。当然很多时侯，根据其含水量，也可在用前将香皂放在架子上使其干燥（可放于恒温箱）2-6周。如果制作时使用的是有腐蚀性的强碱至少要放4周。
[edit] Purification and finishing
The common process of purifying soap involves removal of sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide, and glycerol. These components are removed by boiling the crude soap curds in water and re-precipitating the soap with salt.
去除氯化钠，氢氧化钠，甘油：水中煮沸后重新盐析
Most of the water is then removed from the soap. This was traditionally done on a chill roll which produced the soap flakes commonly used in the 1940s and 1950s. This process was superseded by spray dryers and then by vacuum dryers.
冷却辊，喷雾烘干机，真空干燥机
The dry soap (approximately 6-12% moisture) is then compacted into small pellets. These pellets are now ready for soap finishing, the process of converting raw soap pellets into a salable product, usually bars.
浴球和香皂
Soap pellets are combined with fragrances and other materials and blended to homogeneity in an amalgamator (mixer). The mass is then discharged from the mixer into a refiner which, by means of an auger, forces the soap through a fine wire screen. From the refiner the soap passes over a roller mill (French milling or hard milling) in a manner similar to calendering paper or plastic or to making chocolate liquor. The soap is then passed through one or more additional refiners to further plasticize the soap mass. Immediately before extrusion it passes through a vacuum chamber to remove any entrapped air. It is then extruded into a long log or blank, cut to convenient lengths, passed through a metal detector and then stamped into shape in refrigerated tools. The pressed bars are packaged in many ways.
Sand or pumice may be added to produce a scouring soap. The scouring agents serve to remove dead skin cells from the surface being cleaned. This process is called exfoliation. Many newer materials are used for exfoliating soaps which are effective but do not have the sharp edges and pore size distribution of pumice.
沙子和浮石的加入使易于洗净，去死皮
Nanoscopic metals are commonly added to certain soaps specifically for both coloration and anti-bacterial properties. Titanium powder is commonly used in extreme "white" soaps for these purposes; nickel, aluminum and silver are less commonly used. These metals provide electron-robbing behavior when in contact with bacteria, stripping electrons from the organism's surface and thereby disrupting their functioning (typically killing the bacteria when it has lost too many electrons). Because some of the metal is left behind on the skin and in the pores, the benefit can also extend beyond the actual time of washing, helping reduce bacterial contamination and reducing potential odors from bacteria on the skin surface.
纳米材料的添加：颜色和抗菌。纳米钛粉用于显示白色。纳米材料夺取微生物的电子，杀死细菌，并残留于体表使皮肤有抗菌能力并能去除体表异味
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第1章 香皂
